Post Maurya period
Post Maurya period (200 BC – 300 AD)
This period is considered as Dark age or Mercantile age of India. Trade was flourishing during this period. Literature of this period attest this fact. Digha Nikaya mentions nearly two dozen trades, Mahavastu mentions 36 kinds of workers and Milinda Panho gives a list of 75 occupations. The Indian iron and steel was exported to Abyssinian ports. Cloth making was an important occupation of the people of that period. A brick built dyeing was unearthed at Uraiyur and Arikamedu. Pearl fishing , gem cutting, manufacture of oil, ivory work etc made tremendous growth. The ivory workers of Vidisa recorded their donation on a gate way to the sachi stupa.
Major sources
There was an extraordinary expansion and elaborate trading activities during this period. The period was also marked by the opening of remote parts of the country and the discovery of new channels of communication. The discovery of the monsoons by Hippalus(greek sailor) in 45 AD and the establishment of the silk route to S.E. gave a impetus to this trade with Egyptian, Romans(most important) and trade with S.E. Asia. The trade balance was in favour of India as the writes like Pliny that bullion was flowing out of their country. A good account of Indo Roman trade was given in the Periplus Maris Erythreae or Periplus of the Erythrean Sea (voyage or sailing chart of the red sea) written in about 60 AD by anonymous sailor of Alexandria. It describes Indian port with their exports and imports.
Organisation of trade
The trade with Rome was not carried on in articles of daily or common use instead trade with luxury goods was carried on. The Romans imported spices (like pepper known as yavanapriya) ,precious and semi precious stones, pearls, cotton cloth etc. Besides this there was a transit trade in silk due to Parthian hostility .
The Romans exported to India gold and silver coins, wine amphorae, red glazed arrentine ware (pottery) ,copper, tin , lead , antimony ,glass, costly vessels of silver and semi precious stones like topaz and emerald. The Indian Roman trade suffered a set back from the days of Roman emperor Caracalla (217 AD). When the trade with Rome declined trade with South East Asia increased especially with Suvarnabhumi(Malay Peninsula) and Suvarnadvipa ( Indonesian Archipelago) , Kambuja(Cambodia) and champa (Annam).
As the trade was increased, merchant guilds arose out of necessity to finance trade and commerce. Sreni or Sangha was a general term for guilds including mercantile corporations. The Sartha type of guild was similar to caravan trade. The leader of Sartha was Sarthavaha. Guilds played a prominent role in the conduct of trade and commerce in pre Gupta period. The law books of this period clearly describe the rights and obligations of each member of the guild. The King also did not go against the laws and ruling of the guilds. The Jatakas mentions 18 guilds each having a pramugha or Jetha as president and a judge from among themselves to settle disputes.
The Romans exported to India gold and silver coins, wine amphorae, red glazed arrentine ware (pottery) ,copper, tin , lead , antimony ,glass, costly vessels of silver and semi precious stones like topaz and emerald. The Indian Roman trade suffered a set back from the days of Roman emperor Caracalla (217 AD). When the trade with Rome declined trade with South East Asia increased especially with Suvarnabhumi(Malay Peninsula) and Suvarnadvipa ( Indonesian Archipelago) , Kambuja(Cambodia) and champa (Annam).
As the trade was increased, merchant guilds arose out of necessity to finance trade and commerce. Sreni or Sangha was a general term for guilds including mercantile corporations. The Sartha type of guild was similar to caravan trade. The leader of Sartha was Sarthavaha. Guilds played a prominent role in the conduct of trade and commerce in pre Gupta period. The law books of this period clearly describe the rights and obligations of each member of the guild. The King also did not go against the laws and ruling of the guilds. The Jatakas mentions 18 guilds each having a pramugha or Jetha as president and a judge from among themselves to settle disputes.
Political History
Sungas
Pushyamitra Sunga killed the last mauryan ruler and established Sungan rule. The great grammarian Patanjali was a contemporary of Pushymitra Sunga. He was succeeded by his son Agnimitra. He is the hero of Kalidasas Malavikagnimitra. The next important king Bhagavata who is identified with King Bhagabadra of the Besanagar pillar inscription. It was to his court that Heliodorouswas deputed as an ambassador by the greek king Antialcidas.The last sunga ruler was Devabhuti . He was killed by his minister Vasudeva who established Kanva rule.
Satavahanas
The Puranas mentions Satavahana rulers as Andhras or Andhrabhritya. Simugha was the first ruler of this dynasty. The third ruler Satakarni I was said to have performed Vedic sacrifices including asvamedha and rajasuya. Hala , Satavahanan King composed Gathasaptasati (sattasi), an anthology of 700 erotic verses in Maharastri or Paisachi prakirt. The last great ruler of this dynasty was Yajna Sri Satakarni. Satavahanas were the partons of Budhism and Brahmanism . The Karle Chaitya cave belons to the first century BC. The Hathigumba inscriptions in the Udayagiri hills are ascribed to Kharavela of Kalinga belonging to the Chedi dynasty.
Indo – Greeks
In the mid third century BC, Bactria under Arsaces and Parthia under Diodotus seceded from the Seleucidian empire and became independent kingdoms. The story of independent Bactria is essentially that of Euthydemus who killed Diodotus and his son Demetrius. Demetrius was the first foreign king after Alexander who carried Greek arms into the interior of India. Menander was one of the Indo Greek ruler whose legendary fame is the pali work Milinda Panho (questions of Milinda) which is in the form of a dialogue between Milinda, the King of Salakala and Nagasena, a Buddist monk. The rule of the house of Euthydemus was ended by Eucratides. A Brahmi inscription engraved on a Garuda pillar found at Besanagar records that Antialcidas sent an ambassador named Heliodorous to the court of Bhagabhadra. This inscription attests the popularity of Bhagavata religion at the period.
Importance of Greek Invasion
The second greek contest was more important than Alexanders invasion as it was lasted more than a century and Half. The greekprovincial organization i.e. Greek satrapies with the strategoi and meridarchs adopted in India. Their bilingual coinage, with legends in greek and Kharosthi was continued by Sakas, Parthians and earlier Kushanas. The Kharosthi legends were first discontinued by Kanishka. The greek calendar was copied. There was a considerable volume of trade between the India and the West. Indian astronomy was indebted to greek astronomy. The names of the Zodiac and Planets mention by Aryabhatta and Varahamihira are certainly of Greek origin. There was constant flow of ideas between Indians and greeks in the fields of religion and Indian art and architecture.
Sakas and parthians
The Sai Wang popularly known as Sakas came to India due the disturbances in the Central Asia at that period. Patanjalis Mahabhashya refers Sakas as aniravasita (clean) sudras. They used to shave half of their heads. The Sakas were closely associated with the Parthians in their rule, so for the sake of convenience the family of Maues who invaded the lower Indus valley are known as Sakas and those of Vonones who ruled over Drangiana and Arachosia as Pahlavas or Parthians. The legend connecting St. Thomas , the Apostle with Gondophernes, the Parthian king appears that St. Thomas might have visited Gondophernes. The Sakas and Parthians used to govern many of their Indian possessions through strategoi and satraps. They ruled smaller units of the country through such officials as meridarkhs. The Sakas did not strike gold coins. Their coins were mostly made of silver and copper. Phalavas issued mainly copper coins and silver coins are very rare.
Kushanas
The name of kushana originally meant a tribe or family of Yuehchi people. Kujula Kadphises I was the founder this dynasty. Vima Kadphises succeeded his father and became one of the few early followers of Pasupatha sect. His coins gold and copper depict siva some times accompanied by his bull. Kanishka was the most important ruler of the kushana dynasty and founder of Saka era 78 A.D. Kanishkas capital was purushapura or peshwar.Kanishka convened 4th Buddhist council on the advice of Parsva in the Kundalavana vihara in Kashmir. The eminent writersNagarjuna, Asvaghosha, Parsva, vasumitra and charaka the eminent ayurvedic authority was flourished during his period.Kanishka was succeeded by Vasishka, Huvishka , Kanishka II (Kaisara) and Vasudeva.
Importance of Kushana Rule
Kushnas ruled a vast empire which fostered the development of trade , art and literature. The interaction of Hellenistic Greek and of the Indians give birth to two schools of art in India one atGandhara and the Other at Mathura. The Kushan coinage influenced the Gupta Coinage. Asvagosha was the author of Buddacharita, Saudarananda and Sariputraprakarana. In this period, Bhuddism spread to china.
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