Indian National Movement

Bharat Choudhary Reply 8:58 PM
Indian National Movement

Introduction

Nationalism in its exact meaning did not exist even at the time of National revolt of 1857. Several factors or causes contributed to the rise and growth of freedom struggle after the failure of this revolt.


Causes

  • Grievance of almost all the sections of Indian society such as peasants, workers, middle classes etc. Others such as native rulers, landlords etc resented due to racial superiority and discrimination
  • As a result of uniform system of Govt. through out India and the communications (Railways, Postal etc) brought mutual contact among the people. It facilitated the growth of Nationalist Movement in India.
  • Through the Western education, English language became the language of the educated and Indians came into contact with Western ideas and thought (Democracy, Socialism, Liberty, Equality).
  • Growth of Press helped to spread Patriotism and modern liberal ideas and created an all India consciousness and criticised official policies and put forwarded Indian views.
  • Socio – religious movement increased the self confidence of Indian people and took pride in rich cultural heritage. They rejected the British racial superiority etc.
  • Lord Lyttons rule and policies accelerated the National Movement. His rule witnessed Delhi durbar of 1887, reduction maximum age limit for ICS examinations, Vernacular Press Act which curbed the , Arms Act and second Afghan war which affected Indian economy.
  • In 1883, Lord Rippon tried to pass a law to enable Indian Magistrates to try Europeans in Criminal cases. This bill known as Ilbert ( mover of the bill) bill was opposed by the British and supported by Indians. The demands of British were accepted by the Government.
The above reasons made Indians to form nationalist organisations to put forward Indian demands before the British Government. There were a number of organisation before the foundation of the Indian National Congress. The first such association was Bangabhasha Prakasika Sabha formed in 1836. The Most important was Indian Association of Calcutta.
Indian National Congress was founded in 1885 by A.O.Hume. Its first session was held under the president ship of W.C.Baneerji and it was attended by 72 delegates from all over India. It was a truly national organization. membership was open to all creeds and communities and approached the countys problems from all India point of view. The history of Indian National congress can be studied in three distinct phases. 
The Moderate phases or Early Nationalist (1885-1905), The Extremist phase or Militant Nationalist (1905-1918) and Gandhian Era (1918-1947).


Moderates or Early Nationalists

Early nationalist did not aim for Swaraj or representative Government, they passed resolutions criticising some actions and policies and demanding reforms. These reforms demanded can be grouped as follows.

  • Constitutional reforms : Larger share for Indians in Legislatures, Executive councils and Public services. Elected members in provincial & central legislative council.
  • Administrative reforms : Simultaneous examinations for I.C.S in England and raising the minimum age. Reduction of Salt tax and Income tax, reduction of military expenditure
  • Economic reforms : lowering of Land Revenue demand, stopping of drain of wealth from India, promotion of Indian industry, reimpositon of import duties on cotton goods etc.

Methods of Moderates

Their methods can best be described as Constitutional Agitation or Political mendicancy. i.e. methods of 3 Ps petitions, prayers and protests. They sought political progress was sought constitutional agitation within the law. The attitude of the British government towards the congress was also favourable in the beginning but they were becoming hostile. 

 
Achievements of Moderates
Popularisation of ideas of democracy and nationalism among the people thus a wide national awakening. Exposition of true nature of British rule. provided a solid base for national movement. creation of common political and economic programs, Passage of Indian councils Act of 1892 etc.

Failures
Their movement confined only to the educated class and they failed to realise the importance of mass struggle. They looked British rule as Gods gift for Indian betterment and expressed loyality to British Crown. They did not succeed in getting anything substantial from the British.
Important moderate leaders were Dadabhai Naoroji, M.G.Ranade, Surendranath Banerji, Pherozshah metha, Badaruddin Tyabgi, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Dindha Wacha, Anandamohan Bose, Rashbehari Ghosh etc.

Extremist or Militant Nationalists

The Objective of Extremists was the attainment of swaraj(complete autonomy) not just self government as in the colonies of Austraila and New Zealand. The realization of this objective should be immediate and not in gradual stages. 
 
Extremist trend began in 1890s ( represented by Rajnarain Bose and Ashwini Kumar Dutt in Bengal, Vishnu sastri Chipulankar in Maharastra however it took deep root with the partition of Bengal 1905. There were several causes for its rise. The failure of moderate methods agitation to get anything substantial, repressive policies of British such as India Official Secrets Act 1904, enactment of law to prevent preaching nationalism (1898) , realization of the need for mass action and growth of self respect and the growing consciousness among Indians of the exploitative character of British rule etc. 
 
Methods of Extremists
Passive resistance i.e. non – cooperating with the British government by boycotting government services, courts, schools and colleges, Promotion of swadeshi and boycott of foreign goods, introduction and promotion of national education. 
Bal Gangadar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai , Bipin Chandra Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh were the important extremist leaders .

Partition of Calcutta

CALCUTTA is the centre from which the Congress Party is manipulated throughout the whole of Bengal, and indeed the whole of India. Lord Curson decided to dethrone Calcutta from its place as the center of successful intrigue by partitioning Calcutta in the name of administrative convenience. The partition proclamation was made in 1905. 
In 1906 Muslims formed a separate political political organization called Muslim league

Anti Partition movement 

Initially it was confined to Bengal but soon it became an all India movement under extremist leaders. The political methods of extremist were applied every where. The objective of annulment of partition superseded by attainment of Indias objective. 
In the Benaras congress session (1905), the extremist wanted a strong resolution on boycott and the moderates suggested constitutional methods. As a compromise, a mild resolution on Boycott and swadeshi was passed. 
In the Calcutta Congress session(1906), The moderate candidateDadabai Naoroji was elected. Extremist wanted Tilak or Lajpat Rai as president. Resolutions on Boycott, Swadeshi and National education was passed. 
In the Surat Congress session(1907) the extremist were expelled from the congress though enjoying more popular support than the moderates.

Luknow Pact

B.G. Tilak played the key role in the Muslim League and Congress pact signed in Lucknow which marked Hindu Muslim unity. Both political organisation agreed to demand common political reforms from the British. However it was based on the Congress acceptance of communal electorates which later led to the division of country.

Home Rule Leagues (1916-17) 

The idea of Home rule movement was put forward by Mrs Besantas early as 1914 and announced it publicly in the Bombay session (1915) but overruled by President. However B.G. Tilak started before Mrs Besant could do it in April 1916 and Mrs. Beasant started in September 1916. The main objective was to attain home rule for India within the British empire. The inspiration derived from the Irish home rule movement. 
Important repressive measured taken by British during this period was The Press Act of 1910, the Seditious Meetings Act of 1915, The Defence of India Act of 1915 which provided for the trial of revolutionary offenders with no appeal.

Rowlatt Act and Jallianwala Bagh Massacre 

The Rowlatt Act passed in 1919 authorised the government to imprison people without trial. The Rowlatt Act came into effect on 10th March in 1919 . In Punjab the protest movement was very strong. On 10th April,two leaders of the congress Dr.Satya Pal and Dr. Saifuddin Kithlew, were arrested and taken to an unknown place.To protest against the arrests, a public meeting was held on13th April at Jallianwala Bagh, a small park enclosed by buildings on all sides in Amritsar. General Dyer with his British troops entered the park, closed the only exit and without giving any warning ordered the troops to fire. A peaceful meeting also attended by women and children was fired upon. Firing lasted about 10 minutes and about 1600 rounds were fired. As the exit, which was a narrow passage, had been closed, no one was allowed to escape. About 1000 dead, according to unofficial estimates, and about 2000 wounded persons lay unattended to in the Bagh. Two enquiry commissions were appointed  Hunter committee (official) and congress committee. The Hunter committee found that Government of India was blameless and Dyer used excessive force.

Khilafat issue

The sultan was the caplih or religious head of Muslims. During the World War I(WW-I), Turkey was sided with Germany and was defeated. At the time of WW-I, the British assured fair treatment of Turkey after the war. However the disintegration of Turkey took place after the war. Ali brothers (Maulan and Shaukat) Ali established All India Khilafat committee for the redressal of Khilafat wrongs.

Non Cooperation Movement (1921-22)(NCM)

The main objectives of NCM were the
1) the annulment of Khilafat wrong 
2) Annulment of Rowlatt Act and remedying Punjab wrong 
3) to bring meaningful and substantial reforms

The congress held a special session at Calcutta in September 1920 and decided to start NCM if the British failed to meet to its demands. The decision was further endorsed by Nagpur session in 1920. Gandhiji promised swaraj within one year. 
The movement included certain negative as well as positive programs 
 
Negative programmes

1. Surrender of Government titles and honours
2. Boycott of foreign goods
3. Boycott of legislatures, courts and educational institutions

Positive programmes

use of swadeshi goods, removal of untouchability , Hindu Muslim unity , Hand spinning and hand weaving and collection of swaraj fund of 1 crore. 
The NCM was abruptly called off by Gandhijis insistence on 11th February 1922 following the Chauri Chaura incident. The peasants at Chauri Chaura in U.P attacked police station and burnt 22 policemen on 5th February 1922.

Swaraj Party

The ideological birth of Congress Khilafat Swarajya Party later known as Swaraj party can be traced to Gaya session of INC in 1922, when C.R.Das, Hakim Ajmal Khan, Motilal Nehru and others declared that NCM had been a failure and lost momentum andadvocated council entry. Those supported the Council entry were known as Pro changers(Swarajist) and those oppose council entry came to known as No changers (Ghandhists). The idea of Swarajits was to demand dominion status from the Government platform and if the government did not co-operate, they would obstruct the functioning of Councils. The swarajist remained as a political wing of congress and endorsed Gandhijis leadership and policies of Congress.

Simon Commission

The Act of 1919, provided for the automatic review of the working of Act of 1919 after 10 years. The British government constituted Simon commission on 8th November 1927 consisting of 7 white members of British parliament. Indians were denied the right to participate in determination of their constitution. The Madras session of the congress in Dec. 1927 resolved to boycott the commission. Hartal was observed on 3rd Feb 1928 the day the commission arrived. The police responded brutally with the demonstrators. In Lahore lathi charge Lala Lajpat Rai( Punjab Kesari) was wounded seriously and died few days later.

All Parties conference and Nehru report 

Lord Birkenhead, the Indian Secretary, said that Indian were excluded from the Simon commission because they were hopelessly divided and challenged to make a draft of reforms agreeable to all. The Indians took up the challenge, An all Parties Conference was held in Delhi on 12 Feb 1928 under the chairmanship of M.A.Ansari. The subsequent meeting was held in Bombay 19 May 1928 and appointed a committee under Motilal Nehru to prepare draft constitution. The important proposals are 
dominion status, freedom of religion, joint mixed electorates with reservation for minorities in place of communal electorate, adult universal suffrage etc.
In opposition to the demand for dominion status, the radical wing of Congress led by Subhash Chandra Bose and Jawaharlal Nehru founded Independence for India League which stood for complete freedom. The Nehru report was not accepted by Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha

Jinnahs 14- Points Agenda : Jinnah repudiated Nehru report and laid his fourteen points embodying the demands of the Muslim community.

Lahore Congress session & Poorna swaraj

Jawaharlal Nehru was elected the President of INC at the Lahore session of 1929. It was decided that the time to given for Dominion status was lapsed and hence forth the objective of congress wasPoorna swaraj (complete independence) ,to start Civil Disobedience Movement , January 26 1930 was fixed as the first Independence day. At the midnight on 31 December Jawaharlal Nehru unfurled the newly adopted tricolour flag on the bank of Ravi.

Second Disobedience Movement and Salt Satyagraha

Before starting the movement, Gandhiji made an offer of 11 point Ultimatum which if accepted by the Government, he would not start his disobedience movement. The offer did not include the demand for complete independence, represented a list of specific grievance of the Indians. The ultimatum included these demands: 

  • reduction of land revenue
  • Abolition of salt tax and Government monopoly
  • protection of indigenous textile industry
  • reduction in Military and civil administration
  • prohibition of intoxicants
  • release of Political prisoners

As the government did not respond, Gandhiji started the movement with his famous Dandi march (Mar 12 to Apr 6 1930) from the Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi on Gujarat Coast. He violated the salt laws by picking up of a lump of salt from the shore. When Gandhi was arrested , Badarudin Tyabji led the satyagrahis. When he too was arrested Sarojini Naidu became the leader. The civil disobedience movement soon spread to other parts of country.

C.Rajagopalachary led a salt march from Tiruchirapalli to Vedaranyam on Tanjore coast. Similar march by K.Kelappan from Calicut to Payyannur. In Eastern India , people refused to pay chowkidara tax. In Nagland, Rani Gadilieu , responded to Gandhijis call, captured and sentenced to life imprisonment at the age of 13. The forest laws were deified in Maharastra, Karnataka and the Central provinces. Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan , popularly called Frontier Gandhi, took the leadership of civil disobedience movement in the extreme north western corner of India. He organised the society of Pathans, Khudai Khidmatgars (servants of God) popularly known as Red Shirts committed to non violence and freedom struggle. 

The whole movement witnessed large scale arrest and imprisonment of popular leaders and brutal suppression of the entire movement. News papers were censored. According to official figures, more than 110 persons were killed and more than 300 wounded in police firing.


Deepavali declaration (31 Oct 1929)

Sir John Simon recommended a conference of representatives of both British India and the Indian states to take a final decision on the question of constitutional reforms for India. The suggestion was accepted by the British cabinet and subsequently Lord Irwin made this statement. According to this declaration, the objective of British policy was to grant dominion status to India and a round table conference would be held in London after the Simon commission had reported.

First Round Table Conference (RTC) (Nov 12 1930 to 19 Jan 1931)

The first RTC was held in London without the participation of the Congress. Muslim League was represented by Muhammad Ali, Muhammad Shafi, Jinnah, the Aga Khan and Fazl Haq.Hindu Mahasabha by Moonje and Jayakar.Indian Liberal Fedration by Tej Bahadur Sapru, C.Y.Chintamani and Srinivas Shastri and Depressed class by B.R.Ambedkar. The British realised that holding of a conference without the participation congress would be a futile effort.

Gandhi Irwin Pact (Mar 1931) 

The returned Indian representatives from London appealed to Gandhi for a meeting with the Viceroy, Lord Irwin. Gandhiji consented and it resulted in a pact known as Gandhi Irwin pact. According to this pact

  • the government agreed to withdraw all ordinances and end prosecution
  • to release political prisoners except those guilty of violence
  • allowed peaceful picketing and salt collection with certain conditions.
  • The congress in turn consented to suspend the civil disobedience movement.
  • to participate in the 2nd RTC
  • not to press for investigation into police excess
Second Round Table Conference(Sep 7 to Dec 1931)

Main points
  • Gandhiji was the sole congress representative
  • the conference deadlocked on the minorities issue
  • Depressed Castes, Indian Chritians, Anglo Indians and Europeans demanded separate electorates.
  • The conference ended with creation of two separate Muslim majority provinces (NWFP & Sind) by Ramsay Macdonald.
Communal Award (August 1932)& Poona Pact (September 1932) 

As the Indian failed to agree on minorities issue, the British PM Ramsay Mac Donald declared the communal award. It awarded separate electorates for the depressed class which made Gandhji to take a fast unto death. It resulted in Poona Pact signed by Gandhiji and Ambedkar which increased the number of seats reserved for depressed class to be filled by joint electorate.


Thrid Round Table conference ( 17 Nov 1932 to 24 Dec 1932) 

Congress did not participate because it had restarted the CDM , after the failure of 2nd RTC and subsequent arrest of Gandhi by new viceroy Wellingdon. The British government , on the basis of discussions in RTCs ,drafted its proposals for the reform of the Indian constitution, which were embodied in the White Paper published in March 1933. This white paper was the basis ofGovernment of Indian Act of 1935.

Elections and Congress Triumph 

The congress was totally opposed to the provisions of the Act, yet it decided to contest the elections. The congress won absolute majority in five provinces and largest single party in two provinces. The congress formed ministries in N.W.F.P, Bombay, Bihar, Madras, C.P, Orissa & UP. Congress formed coalition ministries in Sindh and Assam. 

World War II & Resignation of Congress Ministries

The World War - II was broke out in Sep 1939, the Government of India immediately joined the war without consulting elected members of the Central legislature or the Ministers. The congress declared that the issue of peace and war for India must be decided by the Indian people. Congress also condemned the way India participated in the war and asked the British to give up her imperial and colonial domination of India and reasonable quantum of self Government. The British refused to accept these demands and the congress ministries resigned. League members observed 22 December 1939 as a Day of Deliverance from congress rule. In March 1940 League demanded a separate state for Indias Muslim.
 

August offer 1940 

The resignation of the congress ministries created a constitutional dead lock. the Governor General on 8 Aug 1940 issued a statement which was aimed to resolve the deadlock. It had three important points. Expansion of Viceroys executive council, establishment of War advisory council and practical steps to solve the constitutional problem after the war. To protest against the Britians policy towards India, the congress started Individual Civil Disobedience in Oct 1940 and Acharya Vinoba Bhave , the Bhoodan leader, was the first satyagrahi.
 

Cripps Mission 1942

In 1941, Japan won a series of victories in Western Pacific and even attacked pearl hourbour in Hawaii. The Allies were surrendered in Malaya and Singapore. The attack of India was imminent. In this situation , the British made a last effort to persuade the Indian leaders to support Britain in its efforts. It SentSir Stafford Cripps with some proposals to India in 1942. The main objectives of proposals were : dominion status at the end of war, Indians to frame her constitution by a constituent assembly and interim government to administer the country except defense. Gandhiji rejected it as a post dated cheque drawn a crashing bank.

Quit India Movement (1942)

The Quit India movement followed in the wake of the failure of Cripps Mission. The congress decided to compel British to accept Indian demand for Independence. The AICC met at Bombay on 8th August 1942 and passed the famous Quit India resolution. Before the Congress could start this non violent struggle, the government arrested all the important leaders. As a result of this a series of revolts broke out in what was known as "British Quit India." The middle class was especially active during the first few phases. But they were soon weakened by the harsh repression. The last phase in the movement was a difficult one characterized by terrorist activity against communication, police and army installations. 

C.R.Formula and Gandh Jinnah Talks

It became very clear that the British would not hand over power to any parties unless the minorities problem was solved.C.Rajagopalachary put forward a formula to bring a settlement between the Congress and the League in 1944. The main points were: both parties should co-operate for the formation of interim government for the transitional period. After the war, a commission shall be appointed to demarcate Muslim dominated areas in the north west and east of India. The people of these districts shall decide by plebiscite, the issue of separation from India. This formula became the basis for the Gandhi – Jinnah talks held in 1944. Jinnah rejected the formula and said Pakistan offered by this formulas was a maimed , multilated and moth eaten one. He opposed the idea of conducting a Plebiscite.

Wavell Plan and Simla Conference (1945)

Lord Wavell , the G.G, summoned a conference to remove the constitutional deadlock and put forward a new plan called Wavell Plan : His idea was to leave the executive council in charge of Indians except the commander in chief and equal representation of Hindus and Muslim in the council. This plan also ended in failure due to the attitude of Jinnah. He argued that Muslim League alone could choose the Muslim members which was not acceptable to Congress.

Cabinet Mission (1946) 

The British Government headed by Attlee was eager to solve the Indian problem sent a Cabinet Mission consisting of Lord Pethick Lawrence, Secretary of state for India, Sir Stafford Cripps, President Board of control and Mr. A.V.Alexander , First Lord of Admiralty.
The main contents were

  • The provinces would meet in three groups – North West, East and the rest
  • Any province could secede from the union after first elections
  • Constitution by a constituent assembly
  • An interim government of all parties till new constitution.

The congress agreed to took part in the constituent assembly but refused to join in the interim government. So Muslim League(ML) expected to form the Govt. but Viceroy refused so ML withdrew its acceptance of this Plan. The Viceroy invited congress to form the government and invitation was accepted. At first ML refused to join the government but later joined. The League proclaimed 16 August as Direct Action day to press their demand. Bloody riot broke out in many parts of the country. ML refused to join the constituent assembly and pressed for the formation of Paksitan. The constituent assembly met on 9 Dec 1946 under Sachidananda Sinha. Rajendra Prasad was elected President and Jawahal Lal Nehru moved his famous objective resolution in 11 Dec 1946.


Role of Subhash Chandra Bose and Indian National Army

In July 1940, he was arrested under defense of India rules. 1941 he escaped from India and reached in Germany. In the mean timeRashbehari Bose organised a conference in Tokyo and then in Bangkok to liberate India from British subjection. Thus Indian National Army was formed. The Bangkok conference invited S.C. Bose to assume the leadership of INA. Bose arrived in Japan and the Japanese authorities extended all the support. He assumed the command of INA gave it the famous battle cry: Chalo Delhi. INA captured Kohima in May 1944. The INA also surrendered to the Allies when Japan surrendered.


Moutbatten Plan and Independence 

Lord Mountbatten replaced Lord Wavell to transfer power at the earliest opportunity and succeeded in convincing congress leadership the necessity of partition. His plan was popularly known as 
June 3rd Plan. The main contents were:

  • The Muslim majority provinces would be partitioned and a separate constituent assembly would be set up
  • The provinces of Punjab and Bengal would be portioned
  • Plebiscite would be conducted in NWFP and Sylhet district of Assam on the issue of separation
A bill will be introduced in the parliament to effect these proposals.The Bill was passed by the British Parliament as Indian Independence Act , 1947 .

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